Canada
No federal residency mandate, but strict provincial rules on storage, access, and transfers
Canada's federal privacy law, PIPEDA, never mandated that personal data stay in Canada. It governed how data was protected, not where it lived. The incoming PPCDA changes this framework by requiring formal privacy impact assessments before data crosses the border. It also creates a new regulator with binding enforcement powers and fines up to $25M or 5% of global revenue. The deeper sovereignty gap remains the US CLOUD Act: a Canadian organization's contracts with a US cloud provider cannot override a valid US government access order.













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